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Wu Wei Painter Taoist Philosophy Influence on Chinese Art

Written By sábado, 30 de abril de 2022 Add Comment Edit

Concept in Chinese philosophy

Wu wei
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese 無為
Simplified Chinese 无为
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese vô half dozen
Korean proper noun
Hangul 무위
Hanja 無爲
Japanese proper noun
Kanji 無為
Hiragana むい

The people of Qi have a maxim – "A man may have wisdom and discernment, only that is not like embracing the favourable opportunity. A man may have instruments of husbandry, just that is non like waiting for the farming seasons." Mencius

Wu wei (Chinese: 無為; pinyin: wúwéi ) is an ancient Chinese concept literally pregnant "inexertion", "inaction", or "effortless activeness"[a].[one] [two] Wu wei emerged in the Spring and Fall period, and from Confucianism, to get an important concept in Chinese statecraft and Taoism, and was near commonly used to refer to an ideal class of government,[3] including the behavior of the emperor. Describing a country of unconflicting personal harmony, free-flowing spontaneity and savoir-faire, it by and large likewise more properly denotes a land of spirit or mind, and in Confucianism accords with conventional morality. Sinologist Jean François Billeter describes it as a "state of perfect knowledge of the reality of the situation, perfect efficaciousness and the realization of a perfect economic system of energy", which in practice Edward Slingerland qualifies as a "set of ('transformed') dispositions (including physical bearing)... befitting with the normative society".[4]

Definition [edit]

Sinologist Herrlee Creel considers wu wei, every bit establish in the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, to denote two different things.

  1. An "mental attitude of genuine non-activity, motivated past a lack of want to participate in homo affairs" and
  2. A "technique by means of which the one who practices it may proceeds enhanced control of human affairs".

The first is quite in line with the contemplative Taoism of the Zhuangzi. Described as a source of serenity in Taoist thought, simply rarely do Taoist texts propose that ordinary people could proceeds political ability through wu wei. The Zhuangzi does not seem to point a definitive philosophical idea, simply that the sage "does not occupy himself with the affairs of the world".

The second sense appears to take been imported from the before governmental idea of "legalist" Shen Buhai (400 BC – c. 337 BC) as Taoists became more interested in the exercise of power past the ruler.[v] Called "dominion by non-action" and strongly advocated by Han Fei, during the Han dynasty, upwards until the reign of Han Wudi rulers confined their activeness "chiefly to the appointment and dismissal of his high officials", a manifestly "Legalist" practice inherited from the Qin dynasty.[vi] [vii] This "conception of the ruler's part as a supreme arbiter, who keeps the essential power firmly in his grasp" while leaving details to ministers, has a "deep influence on the theory and practice of Chinese monarchy",[6] and played a "crucial role in the promotion of the autocratic tradition of the Chinese polity", ensuring the ruler's power and the stability of the polity.[8]

Only appearing three times in the first (more than contemplative) half of the Zhuangzi, early Taoists may take avoided the term for its clan with "Legalism" before ultimately co-opting its governmental sense as well, as attempted in the Zhuangzi's latter one-half. Thought by modern scholarship to accept been written after the Zhuangzi, wu wei becomes a major "guiding principle for social and political pursuit"[9] in the more "purposive" Taoism of the Tao Te Ching, in which the Taoist "seeks to use his power to command and govern the world".[five]

Confucian development [edit]

Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel believed that an important clue to the development of wu wei existed in the Analects, in a saying attributed to Confucius, which reads: "The Master said, 'Was it not Shun who did nothing and still ruled well? What did he do? He merely corrected his person ("made himself reverent" – Edward Slingerland) and took his proper position (facing southward) equally ruler'". The concept of a divine king whose "magic ability" (virtue) "regulates everything in the country" (Creel) pervades early on Chinese philosophy, particularly "in the early branches of Quietism that developed in the 4th century B.C."[ten]

Edward Slingerland argues wu wei in this sense has to be attained. Just in the Confucian conception of virtue, virtue can only be attained by non consciously trying to attain it.[three] The manifestation of Virtue is regarded as a reward by Heaven for following its will – as a ability that enables them to institute this will on globe. In this, probably more original sense, wu wei may be regarded as the "skill" of "becoming a fully realized human", a sense which it shares with Taoism. This "skill" avoids relativity through being linked to a "normative" metaphysical gild, making its spontaneity "objective". By achieving a country of wu wei (and taking his proper ritual place) Shun "unifies and orders" the entire world, and finds his identify in the "creation". Taken equally a historical fact demonstrating the viable superiority of Confucianism (or Taoism, for Taoist depictions), wu wei may be understood as a strongly "realist" spiritual-religious ideal, differing from Kantian or Cartesian realism in its Chinese emphasis on exercise.[xi]

The "object" of wu wei "skill-knowledge" is the Way, which is – to an extent regardless of school – "embodying" the mind to a "normative order existing independently of the minds of the practitioners". The primary example of Confucianism – Confucius at historic period 70 – displays "mastery of morality" spontaneously, his inclinations being in harmony with his virtue. Confucius considers preparation unnecessary if i is born loving the Fashion, equally with the disciple Yan Hui. Mencius believed that men are already expert, and need only realize it non past trying, simply by allowing virtue to realize itself, and coming to love the Manner. Grooming is done to learn to spontaneously love the Way. Virtue is compared with the grain seed (being domesticated) and the flow of water.[12] On the other hand, Xun Kuang considered it possible to attain wu wei only through a long and intensive traditional grooming.[13]

Taoist development [edit]

Following the development of wu wei by Shen Buhai and then Mencius, Zhuangzhi and Laozi plough towards an unadorned "no endeavour". Laozi, as opposed to carved Confucian jade, advocates a return to the primordial Mother and to become similar uncarved wood. He condemns doing and grasping, urging the reader to cognitively grasp oneness (still the mind), reduce desires and the size of the land, leaving human nature untouched. In practise, wu wei is aimed at thorough behaviour modification; cryptically referenced meditation and more purely physical animate techniques as in the Guanzi, which includes just taking the right posture.[14]

When your body is not aligned [ 形不正 ],
The inner power will non come.
When you are not tranquil within [ 中不靜 ],
Your mind will non be well ordered.
Align your body, assist the inner power [ 正形攝德 ],
So it will gradually come on its own.[15]

Though, past still needing to make a cerebral effort, perhaps non resolving the paradox of not doing, the concentration on accomplishing wu wei through the physiological would influence later thinkers.[sixteen] The Dao De Jing became influential in intellectual circles about 250 BCE (1999: 26–27), merely, included in the second century Guanzi, the likely older Neiye or Inward Preparation may exist the oldest Chinese received text describing what would go Daoist breath meditation techniques and qi circulation, Harold D. Roth because information technology a genuine fourth-century BCE text.[17]

When yous overstate your mind and let go of it,
When you relax your [qi 氣 ] vital breath and aggrandize it,
When your body is calm and unmoving:
And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances.
You will see turn a profit and not be enticed by it,
You lot will see damage and not exist frightened past it.
Relaxed and unwound, however acutely sensitive,
In solitude you please in your own person.
This is called "revolving the vital breath":
Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly.[18]

Poesy 13 describes the aspects of shen "numen; numinous", attained through relaxed efforts.

In that location is a numinous [mind] naturally residing within [ 有神自在身 ];
Ane moment information technology goes, the next information technology comes,
And no one is able to excogitate of it.
If you lose it you are inevitably matted;
If y'all attain it you are inevitably well ordered.
Diligently make clean out its lodging place [ 敬除其舍 ]
And its vital essence volition naturally arrive [ 精將自來 ].
Still your attempts to imagine and conceive of it.
Relax your efforts to reflect on and control it.
Exist reverent and diligent
And its vital essence will naturally stabilize.
Grasp information technology and don't let go
Then the eyes and ears won't overflow
And the mind will have nothing else to seek.
When a properly aligned mind resides within you lot [ 正心在中 ],
The myriad things will exist seen in their proper perspective.[xix]

Political development [edit]

EN-HAN260BCE.jpg

Unable to find his philosopher-male monarch, Confucius placed his hope in virtuous ministers.[xx] Apart from the Confucian ruler's "divine essence" (ling) "ensuring the fecundity of his people" and fertility of the soil, Creel notes that he was too assisted by "v servants", who "performed the active functions of authorities".[10] Xun Kuang'south Xunzi, a Confucian adaptation to Qin "Legalism", defines the ruler in much the aforementioned sense, saying that the ruler "demand only right his person" because the "abilities of the ruler announced in his appointment of men to office": namely, appraising virtue and causing others to perform.

More important information lay in the recovery of the fragments of administrator (aka "Legalist") Shen Buhai. Shen references Yao as using Fa (administrative method) in the selection and evaluation of men.[21] Though non a conclusive argument confronting proto-Taoist influence, Shen's Taoist terms exercise not testify evidence of Taoist usage (Confucianism as well uses terms similar "Tao", meaning the "Tao", or "Way" of government), lacking any metaphysical connotation.[22] The later "Legalist" book, the Han Feizi has a commentary on the Tao Te Ching, but references Shen Buhai rather than Laozi for this usage.[23]

Shen is attributed the dictum "The Sage ruler relies on method and does not rely on wisdom; he relies on technique, not on persuasions",[24] and used the term wu wei to mean that the ruler, though vigilant, should not interfere with the duties of his ministers, maxim "One who has the right way of government does not perform the functions of the five (aka various) officials, and yet is the master of the authorities".[25] [26]

Since the bulk of both the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi appear to have been composed afterwards, Creel argued that it may therefore be assumed that Shen influenced them,[25] [26] much of both appearing to be counter-arguments against "Legalist" controls.[23] The thirteenth chapter of the Zhuangzi, "T'ien Tao", seems to follow Shen Buhai downward to the item, maxim "Superiors must be without action in-club to control the globe; inferiors must be agile in-guild to be employed in the earth's business organisation..." and to paraphrase, that foundation and principle are the responsibility of the superior, superstructure and details that of the minister, but then goes on to assault Shen'south administrative details as not-essential.[27]

Elsewhere the Zhuangzi references another "Legalist", Shen Dao, equally impartial and lacking selfishness, his "cracking way embracing all things".[28]

Non-action by the ruler [edit]

Zhaoming Mirror frame, Western Han dynasty

Shen Buhai argued that if the authorities were organized and supervised relying on proper method (Fa), the ruler demand do picayune – and must exercise little.[29] [30] Apparently paraphrasing the Analects, Shen did non consider the relationship between ruler and minister antagonistic necessarily,[31] but yet believed that the ruler's most able ministers his greatest danger,[32] and is convinced that information technology is impossible to make them loyal without techniques.[33] Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel explains: "The ruler'due south subjects are so numerous, and so on alert to discover his weaknesses and go the better of him, that it is hopeless for him alone equally one human to effort to acquire their characteristics and control them by his knowledge... the ruler must refrain from taking the initiative, and from making himself conspicuous – and therefore vulnerable – by taking any overt activeness."[34]

Emphasizing the use of administrative methods (Fa) in secrecy, Shen Buhai portrays the ruler every bit putting upward a forepart to hibernate his weaknesses and dependence on his advisers.[35] Shen therefore advises the ruler to proceed his own counsel, hide his motivations, and conceal his tracks in inaction, availing himself of an appearance of stupidity and insufficiency.[34] [32] Shen says:

If the ruler's intelligence is displayed, men will prepare confronting it; if his lack of intelligence is displayed, they will delude him. If his wisdom is displayed, men will gloss over (their faults); if his lack of wisdom is displayed, they will hide from him. If his lack of desires is displayed, men volition spy out his true desires; if his desires are displayed, they volition tempt him. Therefore (the intelligent ruler) says 'I cannot know them; information technology is but past ways of non-activity that I command them.'[36] [37]

Interim through administrative method (Fa), the ruler conceals his intentions, likes and dislikes, skills and opinions. Not acting himself, he tin avoid beingness manipulated.[26] The ruler plays no active role in governmental functions. He should not utilise his talent even if he has information technology. Not using his own skills, he is better able to secure the services of capable functionaries. Creel argues that not getting involved in details immune Shen's ruler to "truly dominion", because it leaves him costless to supervise the authorities without interfering, maintaining his perspective.[38] Seeing and hearing independently, the ruler is able to make decisions independently, and is, Shen says, able to rule the world thereby.[39]

The ruler is like a mirror, reflecting light, doing nothing, and all the same, beauty and ugliness nowadays themselves; (or like) a calibration establishing equilibrium, doing nothing, and yet causing lightness and heaviness to detect themselves. (Administrative) method (Fa) is complete amenability. (Merging his) personal (concerns) with the public (weal), he does not act. He does not act, and however the earth itself is complete.

—Shen Buhai[21]

This wu wei (or nonaction) might be said to finish upwardly the political theory of the "Legalists" , if non condign their general term for political strategy, playing a "crucial function in the promotion of the autocratic tradition of the Chinese polity". The (qualified) not-action of the ruler ensures his power and the stability of the polity.[8]

Non-action in statecraft [edit]

"The Way of Listening is to be airheaded equally though soused. Exist dumber and dumber. Allow others deploy themselves, and accordingly I shall know them."

Right and wrong whirl around him similar spokes on a bike, but the sovereign does not complot. Emptiness, stillness, not-activeness—these are the characteristics of the Way. Past checking and comparing how it accords with reality, [one ascertains] the "operation" of an enterprise.[40] [41]

Han Fei

Detail of The Spinning Wheel, by Chinese artist Wang Juzheng, Northern Song Dynasty (960–1279)[42]

Shen Buhai insisted that the ruler must be fully informed of the state of his realm, but couldn't afford to get defenseless upwardly in details and in an platonic situation need mind to no one. Listening to his courtiers might interfere with promotions, and he does non, as Sinologist Herrlee K. Creel says, have the time to do so. The way to encounter and hear independently is the grouping together of particulars into categories using mechanical or operational method (Fa). On the opposite the ruler's eyes and ears will make him "deafened and blind" (unable to obtain authentic information).[43] [44] [45] [46] Seeing and hearing independently, the ruler is able to make decisions independently, and is, Shen says, able to rule the world thereby.[39]

Despite this, Shen'due south method of appointment, "Ming-shih", advises a particular method for listening to petitioners in the final analyses, which would exist articulated as Xing-Ming past Han Fei. In the Han Dynasty secretaries of government who had charge of the records of decisions in criminal matters were called Xing-Ming, which Sima Qian (145 or 135 – 86 BC) and Liu Xiang (77–6 BC) attributed to the doctrine of Shen Buhai (400 – c. 337 BC). Liu Xiang goes as far as to ascertain Shen Buhai's doctrine as Xing-Ming.[47] Rather than having to look for "good" men, ming-shih or xing-ming can seek the right man for a particular postal service by comparing his reputation with real conduct (xing "form" or shih "reality"), though doing so implies a full organizational noesis of the authorities.[48]

More simply though, i tin can allow ministers to "proper name" themselves through accounts of specific price and time frame, leaving their definition to competing ministers. Claims or utterances "bind the speaker to the realization a job (Makeham)". This was the doctrine, with subtle differences, favoured by Han Fei. Favoring exactness, it combats the tendency to promise likewise much.[49] The correct articulation of Ming ("name", "speech", "title") is considered crucial to the realization of projects.[50] [51]

Shen resolved hair-splitting litigation through wu wei, or not getting involved, making an official's words his own responsibility.[50] Shen Buhai says, "The ruler controls the policy, the ministers manage affairs. To speak ten times and 10 times be right, to deed a hundred times and a hundred times succeed – this is the business of one who serves some other equally minister; it is the not the manner to rule."[52] The correlation between wu wei and ming-shih likely informed the Taoist conception of the formless Tao that "gives ascent to the ten thousand things."[53]

Yin (passive mindfulness) [edit]

Adherence to the use of technique in governing requires the ruler not engage in whatsoever interference or subjective consideration.[54] Sinologist John Makeham explains: "assessing words and deeds requires the ruler'due south dispassionate attention; (yin is) the skill or technique of making one's listen a tabula rasa, non-committaly taking notation of all the details of a man's claims so objectively comparing his achievements of the original claims."[54]

A commentary to the Shiji cites a now-lost book as quoting Shen Buhai saying: "Past employing (yin), 'passive mindfulness', in overseeing and keeping account of his vassals, accountability is deeply engraved." The Guanzi similarly says: "Yin is the way of non-action. Yin is neither to add to nor to detract from anything. To requite something a name strictly on the footing of its form – this is the Method of yin."[54] [55] Yin also aimed at concealing the ruler's intentions, likes and opinions.[54]

Shen Dao [edit]

Shen Dao espouses an impersonal administration in much the aforementioned sense as Shen Buhai, and argued for wu wei, or the non activity of the ruler, along the same lines, saying

The Dao of ruler and ministers is that the ministers labour themselves with tasks while the prince has no task; the prince is relaxed and happy while the ministers bear responsibility for tasks. The ministers use all their intelligence and strength to perform his job satisfactorily, in which the ruler takes no part, simply only waits for the job to be finished. As a result, every job is taken care of. The correct way of regime is thus.[56] [57]

Shen Dao eschews appointment by interview in favour of a mechanical distribution apportioning every person co-ordinate to their achievement.[58] [59] Linking administrative methods or standards to the notion of impartial objectivity associated with universal interest, and reframing the linguistic communication of the old ritual gild to fit a universal, imperial and highly bureaucratized state,[lx] Shen cautions the ruler against relying on his ain personal judgment,[61] contrasting personal opinions with the merit of the objective standard as preventing personal judgements or opinions from being exercised. Personal opinions destroy standards, and Shen Dao's ruler therefore "does not show favoritism toward a unmarried person".[60]

When an enlightened ruler establishes [gong] ("knuckles" or "public involvement"), [private] desires exercise not oppose the right timing [of things], favoritism does not violate the law, nobility does not trump the rules, salary does not exceed [that which is due] ane's position, a [single] officer does not occupy multiple offices, and a [single] craftsman does non take upwards multiple lines of work... [Such a ruler] neither overworked his heart-mind with knowledge nor wearied himself with self-interest (si), only, rather, depended on laws and methods for settling matters of order and disorder, rewards and punishments for deciding on matters of right and wrong, and weights and balances for resolving bug of heavy or calorie-free...[60]

The reason why those who apportion horses use ce-lots, and those who apportion fields use gou-lots, is not that they take ce and gou-lots to be superior to human wisdom, simply that 1 may eliminate individual interest and stop resentment past these ways. Thus it is said: 'When the nifty lord relies on fa and does non deed personally, affairs are judged in accordance with (objective) method (fa).' The benefit of fa is that each person meets his reward or penalisation co-ordinate to his due, and there are no further expectations of the lord. Thus resentment does non arise and superiors and inferiors are in harmony.

If the lord of men abandons method (Fa) and governs with his ain person, so penalties and rewards, seizures and grants, will all sally from the lord's listen. If this is the case, then those who receive rewards, even if these are commensurate, will ceaselessly expect more; those who receive punishment, fifty-fifty if these are commensurate, will endlessly expect more lenient treatment... people will be rewarded differently for the aforementioned merit and punished differently for the same fault. Resentment arises from this."[62]

Han Fei [edit]

Devoting the entirety of Affiliate 14, "How to Honey the Ministers", to "persuading the ruler to be ruthless to his ministers", Han Fei's enlightened ruler strikes terror into his ministers by doing nothing (wu wei). The qualities of a ruler, his "mental power, moral excellence and physical prowess" are irrelevant. He discards his individual reason and morality, and shows no personal feelings. What is important is his method of authorities. Fa (administrative standards) crave no perfection on the part of the ruler.[63]

Han Fei's use of wu wei may have been derivative of Taoism, but its Tao emphasizes autocracy ("Tao does not identify with anything but itself, the ruler does not identify with the ministers"). Sinologists like Randall P. Peerenboom fence that Han Fei's Shu (technique) is arguably more of a "applied principle of political control" than any state of heed.[64] [65] Han Fei nonetheless begins by advising the ruler to remain "empty and nonetheless":

Tao is the beginning of the myriad things, the standard of right and wrong. That being and then, the intelligent ruler, by belongings to the beginning, knows the source of everything, and, past keeping to the standard, knows the origin of practiced and evil. Therefore, by virtue of resting empty and reposed, he waits for the course of nature to enforce itself and so that all names will be defined of themselves and all affairs will be settled of themselves. Empty, he knows the essence of fullness: reposed, he becomes the corrector of motion. Who utters a discussion creates himself a name; who has an affair creates himself a form. Compare forms and names and meet if they are identical. Then the ruler will find nothing to worry most equally everything is reduced to its reality.

...

Tao exists in invisibility; its function, in unintelligibility. Be empty and reposed and have naught to do-And then from the dark come across defects in the light. See simply never be seen. Hear but never be heard. Know but never be known. If you hear whatsoever word uttered, practise non change it nor motion it only compare information technology with the deed and meet if word and deed coincide with each other. Place every official with a censor. Do not permit them speak to each other. So everything will be exerted to the utmost. Cover tracks and conceal sources. And then the ministers cannot trace origins. Leave your wisdom and cease your ability. And then your subordinates cannot gauge at your limitations.[66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71]

Han Fei's commentary on the Tao Te Ching asserts that perspectiveless knowledge – an absolute point of view – is possible, though the chapter may have been one of his before writings.[72]

Han dynasty [edit]

"Legalism" dominated the intellectual life of the Qin and early on Han together with Taoism. Early Han dynasty Emperors like Emperor Jing (r. 157–141 BCE) would be steeped in a Taoistic laissez-faire.[73] But Shen Buhai's book would be widely studied even from the beginning of the Han era.[32] Jia Yi's (200–168 AD) Hsin-shu, undoubtedly influenced by the "Legalists", describes Shen Buhai's techniques equally methods of applying the Tao, or virtue, bringing together Confucian and Taoist discourses under the imagery of the Zhuangzi.[69] : pp49, 65 Many later texts, for case in Huang-Lao, use like images to describe the quiescent attitude of the ruler.[69] : p55

The Huang-Lao text Huainanzi (Western Han Dynasty 206 B.C. – nine A.D.), arguing against Legalist centralization, would get on to include naturalist arguments in favour of dominion by worthies on the basis that one needs their competence for such things equally diplomacy, and defines wu wei every bit follows: "What is meant ... by wu-wei is that no personal prejudice [private or public will,] interferes with the universal Tao [the laws of things], and that no desires and obsessions atomic number 82 the true course ... astray. Reason must guide action in guild that power may be exercised according to the intrinsic properties and natural trends of things."[74]

The Huang–Lao text Jing fa says

The right style to understand all these (things) is to remain in a state of [vacuity,] formlessness and non-being. Only if ane remains in such a state, may he thereby know that (all things) necessarily possess their forms and names as presently every bit they come up into beingness, even though they are as small as autumn down. Every bit presently equally forms and names are established, the stardom between black and white becomes manifest... there will be no way to escape from them without a trace or to hibernate them from regulation... [all things] will right themselves.[75]

Modern [edit]

Leo Tolstoy was securely influenced past Taoist philosophy, and wrote his own interpretation of Wu Wei in his piece Non-Activity. Philosopher Alan Watts believed that Wu Wei can best be described as "non-forcing."[76] "There are simply some concepts that defy translation. Chinese-American author David H. Li has stated, for example, that the word Tao does non mean 'Way' to the Chinese person. It actually ways Direction. For example, if yous ask me what is the way to New York Urban center, I might point in its compass management. In post-obit that management, there would be many possible means of reaching it".[77]

Psychoanalyst Robin S. Brown has examined Wu Wei in the context of Western psychotherapy.[78] Dark-brown links Wu Wei with the psychoanalytic notion of enactment.

Encounter also [edit]

  • Flow (psychology)
  • Sahaja
  • Samyama

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Daodejing's chapter 37 quote: " 道常無為而無不為。" translation: "The Dao abides in not-action simply there is nothing it does non practise."

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

  1. ^ Slingerland (2007), p. 7
  2. ^ Tierney, John (2014-12-15). "A Meditation on the Art of Not Trying". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-12-07 .
  3. ^ a b Slingerland (2007), p. 6
  4. ^ Slingerland (2007), pp. 7
  5. ^ a b Creel (1982), pp. 73–78
  6. ^ a b Creel (1982), pp. 99
  7. ^ Pan Ku. trans. Homer Dubs, The History of the Former Han Dynasty
  8. ^ a b Get (2002), p. 198
  9. ^ Go (2002), p. 84
  10. ^ a b Creel (1982), p. 58; Slingerland (2007), p. 9
  11. ^ Slingerland (2007), pp. 8–9
  12. ^ Slingerland (2007), pp. 10–13, 15–xvi
  13. ^ Slingerland (2007), pp. 10–13
  14. ^ Slingerland (2007), p. 14
  15. ^ Verse 11, tr. Roth, Harold D. (1999). Original Tao: Inward Training ( Nei-yeh ) and the Foundations of Taoist Mysticism. Columbia University Press. p. 66.
  16. ^ Slingerland (2007), pp. 14
  17. ^ Roth 1999, p. 23-25.
  18. ^ 24, tr. Roth 1999, p. 92
  19. ^ tr. Roth 1999: 70
  20. ^ Creel (1982), p. 59
  21. ^ a b Creel (1982), p. 64
  22. ^ Creel (1982), p. 62-63
  23. ^ a b Creel (1982), p. 69
  24. ^ Paul R. Goldin p.93. Studies in Early on Chinese Philosophy. Insidious Syncretism in the Political Philosophy of Huainanzi. JSTOR j.ctt1wn0qtj.10
  25. ^ a b Creel (1982), pp. 48, 62–63
  26. ^ a b c Due south. Y. Hsieh, 1995. p.92 Chinese Idea: An Introduction
  27. ^ Creel (1982), p. 71
  28. ^ Antonio South. Cua 2003 p.362, Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy
  29. ^ Creel (1982), pp. 69, 99
  30. ^ Creel (1974), p. 66
  31. ^ R. P. Peerenboom 1993 p.241. Constabulary and Morality in Ancient China.
  32. ^ a b c Creel (1974), p. 35
  33. ^ Go (2002), p. 143
  34. ^ a b Creel (1982), p. 67
  35. ^ Karyn Lai 2017. p.171. An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy.
  36. ^ Creel (1982), p. 66
  37. ^ Huang Kejian 2016 p.185. From Destiny to Dao: A Survey of Pre-Qin Philosophy in China.
  38. ^ Creel (1982), p. 65-66;Become (2002), p. 198
  39. ^ a b Creel (1974), p. 26
  40. ^ Goldin (2013), p. 10
  41. ^ Chen Qiyou 2000: two.8.156
  42. ^ Deng, Yingke; Wang, Pingxing (2005). Aboriginal Chinese Inventions. 五洲传播出版社 (Globe communication publishing). p. 48. ISBN7-5085-0837-8.
  43. ^ Creel (1982), p. 81
  44. ^ Creel (1974), pp. 33, 68–69
  45. ^ A. C. Graham 1989. p. 283. Disputers of the Tao.
  46. ^ "Shen Bu Hai".
  47. ^ Creel (1982), p. 72, 80, 103–104; Creel (1959), pp. 199–200; Makeham (1990), pp. 91–92
  48. ^ Creel (1974), p. 57; Creel (1982), p. 83; Creel (1959), p. 203
  49. ^ Makeham (1990), p. 91; Mark Edward Lewis, 1999 p. 33, Writing and Authorization in Early China; Goldin (2013), p. 9
  50. ^ a b Makeham (1990), p. 91
  51. ^ John Makeham 1994 p. 67. Proper name and Authenticity in Early Chinese Idea.
  52. ^ Creel (1982), p. 65
  53. ^ Julia Ching, R. W. L. Guisso. 1991. pp. 75,119. Sages and Filial Sons.
  54. ^ a b c d Makeham (1990), pp. 90–91
  55. ^ John Makeham 1994 p. 69. Name and Actuality in Early Chinese Thought.
  56. ^ L.Grand. Chen and H.C.W Sung 2015 p.251 Dao Companion to Daoist Philosophy.
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General sources [edit]

  • Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1982) [1970]. What is Taoism?: and other studies in Chinese cultural history. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN9780226120478.
  • Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1974). Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the 4th Century B.C. Chicago: Academy of Chicago Press. ISBN9780226120270.
  • Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1959). "The Meaning of Hsing-Ming". Studia Serica: Sinological studies dedicated to Bernhard Kalgren.
  • Go, Xuezhi (2002). The ideal Chinese political leader: a historical and cultural perspective. Westport, CN: Praeger. ISBN9780275972592.
  • Goldin, Paul R. (2013). "Introduction: Han Fei and the Han Feizi" (PDF). In Goldin, Paul R. (ed.). Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. pp. 1–21. doi:x.1007/978-94-007-4318-2_1. ISBN978-94-007-4317-5.
    • Yang, Presently-Ja (2013). "Shen Dao'due south Theory of fa and His Influence on Han Fei". In Goldin, Paul R. (ed.). Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. doi:ten.1007/978-94-007-4318-2_1.
  • Makeham, J. (1990). "The Legalist Concept of Hsing-Ming: An Example of the Contribution of Archaeological Prove to the Re-Interpretation of Transmitted Texts". Monumenta Serica. 39: 87–114. doi:10.1080/02549948.1990.11731214. JSTOR 40726902.
  • Slingerland, Edward (2007). Effortless Action: Wu-wei As Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early Communist china. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Printing. ISBN9780195138993.

External links [edit]

  • "Taoism – The Wu-Wei Principle" past Ted Kardash. Jade Dragon Online, June 1998.
  • "Wei-wu-wei: Nondual action" by David Loy. Philosophy East and West, Vol. 35, No. one (January 1985) pp. 73–87.
  • "Wu-Wei in Europe. A Report of Eurasian Economical Thought" by Christian Gerlach. London School of Economics 2005.
  • "Wú wéi translations and usages in Buddhism"—Digital Dictionary of Buddhism
  • Wu Wei (WuWei) Calligraphy Scrolls from the Dao de Jing
  • Daoism.net—The Unabridged Philosophy of Laozi's Daodejing Explained in Common Sense
  • Laozi, Libertarianism & Wu-wei(Non-interference) Analysis老子的无为详解

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